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Activity I – Create a general social media policy that could be used by multiple companies. You should consider the following questions when developing the social media policy: Will these companies be allowed to monitor employee posts / pages on social media sites? What privacy concerns does this raise? How should companies deal with leaks of confidential information, material which could lead to an adverse employment decision, defamatory communications concerning a company, etc. that were obtained through monitoring an employee’s social media site?Activity II – Visit the Newsroom at www.eeoc.gov . Review a recent press release which involves a harassment and / or discrimination claim. You should summarize the facts of the case, including the parties involved and the issues at hand. You also should note any federal laws which apply to the situation and what the outcome is / will be / should be based on the application of such laws to the case. Finally, using what you learn from the case, provide suggestions to management on how to handle a similar case in the future.Need 1.5 pages APA format paper. No plagiarism.

Need 2.5 pages APA format paper. Need each answer with same quantity of matter. Want quality answer. Direct answer to the question.Question Activity I: As part of your company’s effort to select a project management software package, you have been asked to approach several other companies that presently use such packages.a. Develop a questionnaire to help collect the relevant information.b. Fill out two questionnaires, each representing a different software package.c. Compare the responses of the companies and select the best software of the two.Activity II: Identify two projects in which you have been involved recently.a. Describe each project briefly.b. Suggest criteria that may have been used to identify the start of the termination phase of each project.c. Give two examples of activities that were performed poorly during the termination phase of either project, and suggest measures that might have been taken to improve the situation

Identify and write up three key questions in the case.  Your assignment will be graded based on the quality of your questions.  Write out each question and explain why it is important.    Your write up should be limited to ONE full page, single spaced, 12-point font, normal margins and submitted as a PDF.     […]

Uber London Limited found to be not fit and proper to hold a private hire operator licence.   —Headline, Transport for London press release, November 25, 20191  In November 2019, Transport for London (TfL), the transportation authority of the British capital,  denied Uber a new license to operate in Greater London. TfL claimed that Uber exhibited […]

The body of the essay should be about 10 double–spaced typed pages (2,500-3,000 words). Since this assignment is intended to introduce you to researching political topics, you must use 6 or more different sources as the base for your essay; note that six sources represent a MINIMUM. These sources should be referred to directly and […]

Prepare a PowerPoint about you as a learner-past, present, and future. This presentation should be a minimum of five slides, and include: Your Core Values (the ones you discovered in class) Your personal mission statement, (what you set out to do in life, in school, or both) Your VARK scores (see link for assessment below), and ideas about you as a learner in past, present, and future (note, each of these can be on their own slide)  Elements may include visual art, poetry, music, photos-GET CREATIVE! You will present your PowerPoint in class. Submit your completed PPT as an attachment. Describe in detail personal preferences indicated by your learning style results (VARK), definition, and a personal example of your style(s). Be sure and use the grading rubric for this assignment to make sure you are meeting the criteria for completion.  VARK: http://vark-learn.com/the-vark-questionnaire/?p=questionnaire Rubric: Me As A Learner PPT Rubric.pdf  This assignment is worth 20 points.

Nursing

Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk ORDER NOW FOR CUSTOMIZED AND ORIGINAL ESSAY PAPERS ON Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk Assignment Content Managing quality often means addressing small issues so that they do not escalate into risks for the organization. This week’s learning activities addressed some of the organizational challenges nursing leaders are likely to face. Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk Select one of the topics from this week’s learning activities: Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk Mitigating bullying and lateral violence Managing conflict Using power to influence Improving communication Valuing diversity Develop a plan to carry out your selected topic as a nurse leader on your floor. Consider: Available resources: time, budget, space, industry collateral, personnel. Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk Employee engagement Change management principles Team dynamics Create a presentation to show your CNO how you plan to address the topic. You Have Two (2) Format Options: Format your assignment as one of the following: 7- to 10-slide presentation. Provided detailed speaker notes. Cite the source of the information on for all speaker notes (each speaker note should have a a citation). Format the title slide and the reference(s) slides using APA format. Or 450-word executive summary using UOPX approved format (see tools section below). Provide references to support your work. Format reference section using APA format. reading_chapters.docx incivility_bullying_and_workplace_violence__ana_position_statement.pdf wk_3_nur_451___gra Chapter 9 Cultural Diversity in Health Care This chapter focuses on the importance of cultural considerations for patients and staff. Although it does not address comprehensive details about any specific culture, it does provide guidelines for actively incorporating cultural aspects into the roles of leading and managing. Diverse workforces are discussed, as well as how to capitalize on their diverse traits and how to support differences to work more efficiently. The chapter presents concepts and principles of transculturalism, describes techniques for managing a culturally diverse workforce, emphasizes the importance of respecting different lifestyles, and discusses the effects of diversity on staff performance. Scenarios and exercises to promote an appreciation of cultural richness are also included. Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk Learning Outcomes • Describe common characteristics of any culture. • Evaluate the use of concepts and principles of acculturation, culture, cultural diversity, and cultural sensitivity in leading and managing situations. • Analyze differences between cross-cultural, transcultural, multicultural, and intracultural concepts and cultural marginality. • Evaluate individual and societal factors involved with cultural diversity. • Value the contributions a diverse workforce can make to the care of people. Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk Key Terms acculturation cross-culturalism cultural competence cultural diversity cultural imposition cultural marginality cultural sensitivity culture ethnicity ethnocentrism multiculturalism transculturalism Introduction Culture influences leadership from two perspectives. One is the way in which we meet patient needs; the other is the way in which we work together in a diverse workforce. Effective leaders can shape the culture of their organization to be accepting of persons from all races, ethnicities, religions, ages, lifestyles, and genders. These interactions of acceptance should involve a minimum of misunderstandings. Multicultural phenomena are cogent for each person, place, and time. Connerley and Pedersen (2005) provided 10 examples for leading from a complicated culture-centered perspective. For example, “3. Explain the action of employees from their own cultural perspective; 6. Reflect culturally appropriate feelings in specific and accurate feedback” (p. 29). Therefore culture-centered leadership provides organizational leaders, such as nurse managers and effective team members, the opportunity to influence cultural differences and similarities among their unit staff. Concepts and Principles What is culture? Does it exhibit certain characteristics? What is cultural diversity, and what do we think of when we refer to cultural sensitivity? Are culture and ethnicity the same? Various authors have different views. Cultural background stems from one’s ethnic background, socio-economic status, and family rituals, to name three key factors. Ethnicity, according to The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (Merriam-Webster Inc., 2013), is defined as related to groups of people who are “classified” according to common racial, tribal, national, religious, linguistic, or cultural backgrounds. This description differs from what is commonly used to identify racial groups. This broader definition encourages people to think about how diverse the populations in the United States are. Inherent characteristics of culture are often identified with the following four factors: 1.Culture develops over time and is responsive to its members and their familial and social environments. 2.A culture’s members learn it and share it. 3.Culture is essential for survival and acceptance. 4.Culture changes with difficulty. For the nurse leader or manager, the characteristics of ethnicity and culture are important to keep in mind because the underlying thread in all of them is that staff’s and patients’ culture and ethnicity have been with them their entire lives. All people view their cultural background as normal; the diversity challenge is for others to view it as normal also and to assimilate it into the existing workforce. Cultural diversity is the term currently used to describe a vast range of cultural differences among individuals or groups, whereas cultural sensitivity describes the affective behaviors in individuals—the capacity to feel, convey, or react to ideas, habits, customs, or traditions unique to a group of people. Spector (2009) addressed three themes involved with acculturation. (1) Socialization refers to growing up within a culture and taking on the characteristics of that group. All of us are socialized to some culture. (2) Acculturation refers to adapting to a particular culture. An example of this might be what a particular society calls a particular food or how healthcare organizations are changing to blame-free environments to encourage safety disclosures. The overall process of acculturation into a new society is extremely difficult. “America” has a core culture and numerous subcultures. For example, think how differently people in rural American regions dress from those in urban centers, or how a city looks on Saturday night versus Sunday morning. In other words, subcultures expand on how the core culture might be described. (3) Assimilation refers to the change that occurs when nurses move from another country to the United States, or from one part of the country to another. They face different social and nursing practices, and individuals now define themselves as members of the dominant culture. An example of this might be when nurses no longer say they are from their country of origin. They say they are from where they live and practice. Providing care for a person or people from a culture other than one’s own is a dynamic and complex experience. The experience according to Spence (2004) might involve “prejudice, paradox and possibility” (p. 140). Spence used prejudice as conditions that enabled or constrained interpretation based on one’s values, attitudes, and actions. By talking with people outside their “circle of familiarity,” nurses can enhance their understanding of personally held prejudices. Prejudices “enable us to make sense of the situations in which we find ourselves, yet they also constrain understanding and limit the capacity to come to new or different ways of understanding. It is this contradiction that makes prejudice paradoxical” (Spence, 2004, p. 163). Paradox, although it may seem incongruent with prejudice, describes the dynamic interplay of tensions between individuals or groups. We have the responsibility to acknowledge the “possibility of tension” as a potential for new and different understandings derived from our communication and interpretation. Possibility therefore presumes a condition for openness with a person from another culture (Spence, 2004). Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk Cultural marginality is defined as “situations and feelings of passive betweenness when people exist between two different cultures and do not yet perceive themselves as centrally belonging to either one” (Choi, 2001, p. 193). This “betweenness” is a time when managers might perceive disinterest in cultural considerations. This situation might actually reflect cognitive processing of information that isn’t yet reflected in effective behaviors. Ethnocentrism “refers to the belief that one’s own ways are the best, most superior, or preferred ways to act, believe, or behave” (Leininger, 2002b, p. 50), whereas cultural imposition is defined as “the tendency of an individual or group to impose their values, beliefs, and practices on another culture for varied reasons” (Leininger, 2002b, p. 51). Such practices constitute a major concern in nursing and “a largely unrecognized problem as a result of cultural ignorance, blindness, ethnocentric tendencies, biases, racism or other factors” (Leininger, 2002b, p. 51). Providing quality of life and human care is difficult to accomplish if the nurse does not have knowledge of the recipient’s culture as it relates to care. Leininger believed that “culture reflects shared values, beliefs, ideas, and meanings that are learned and that guide human thoughts, decisions, and actions. Cultures have manifest (readily recognized) and implicit (covert and ideal) rules of behavior and expectations. Human cultures have material items or symbols such as artifacts, objects, dress, and actions that have special meaning in a culture” (Leininger, 2002b, p. 48). Leininger (2002b) stated that her views of cultural care are “a synthesized construct that is the foundational basis to understanding and helping people of different cultures in transcultural nursing practices” (p. 48). (See the Theory Box on p. 157.) Accordingly, “quality of life” must be addressed from an emic (insider) cultural viewpoint and compared with an etic (outsider) professional’s perspective. By comparing these two viewpoints, more meaningful nursing practice interventions will evolve. This comparative analysis will require nurses to include global views in their cultural studies that consider the social and environmental context of different cultures. Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk Theory How do leaders, managers, or followers take all of the expanding information on the diversity of healthcare beliefs and practices and give it some organizing structure to provide culturally competent and culturally sensitive care to patients or clients? Purnell and Paulanka (2008), Campinha-Bacote (1999, 2002), Giger and Davidhizar (2002), and Leininger (2002a) provided an overview of each of their theoretical models to guide healthcare providers for delivering culturally competent and culturally sensitive care in the workplace. Purnell and Paulanka’s (2008) Model for Cultural Competence provides an organizing framework. The model uses a circle with the outer zone representing global society, the second zone representing community, the third zone representing family, and the inner zone representing the person. The interior of the circle is divided into 12 pie-shaped wedges delineating cultural domains and their concepts (e.g., workplace issues, family roles and organization, spirituality, and healthcare practices). The innermost center circle is black, representing unknown phenomena. Cultural consciousness is expressed in behaviors from “unconsciously incompetent—consciously incompetent—consciously competent to unconsciously competent” (p. 10). The usefulness of this model is derived from its concise structure, applicability to any setting, and wide range of experiences that can foster inductive and deductive thinking when assessing cultural domains. Purnell (2009) described the dominant cultural characteristics of selected ethnocultural groups and a guide for assessing their beliefs and practices. The Purnell Model for Cultural Competence serves as an organizing framework for providing cultural care, which is based on 20 major assumptions. Campinha-Bacote’s (1999, 2002) culturally competent model of care identifies five constructs: (1) awareness, (2) knowledge, (3) skill, (4) encounters, and (5) desire. She defined cultural competence as “the process in which the healthcare provider continuously strives to achieve the ability to effectively work within the cultural context of a client (individual, family, or community)” (Campinha-Bacote, 1999, p. 203). Cultural awareness is the self-examination and in-depth exploration of one’s own cultural and professional background. It involves the recognition of one’s bias, prejudices, and assumptions about the individuals who are different (Campinha-Bacote, 2002). “One’s world view can be considered a paradigm or way of viewing the world and phenomena in it” (Campinha-Bacote, 1999, p. 204). Cultural knowledge is the process of seeking and obtaining a sound educational foundation about diverse cultural and ethnic groups. Obtaining cultural information about the patient’s health-related beliefs and values will help explain how he or she interprets his or her illness and how it guides his or her thinking, doing, and being (Campinha-Bacote, 2002). The skill of conducting a cultural assessment is learned while assessing one’s values, beliefs, and practices to provide culturally competent services. The process of cultural encounters encourages direct engagement in cross-cultural interactions with individuals from other cultures. This process allows the person to validate, negate, or modify his or her existing cultural knowledge. It provides culturally specific knowledge bases from which the individual can develop culturally relevant interventions. Cultural desire requires the intrinsic qualities of motivation and genuine caring of the healthcare provider to “want to” engage in becoming culturally competent (Campinha-Bacote, 1999). The Giger and Davidhizar Transcultural Assessment Model identified phenomena to assess provision of care for patients who are of different cultures (2002). Their model includes six cultural phenomena: communication, time, space, social organization, environmental control, and biological variations. Each one is described based on several premises (e.g., culture is a patterned behavioral response that develops over time; is shaped by values, beliefs, norms, and practices; guides our thinking, doing, and being; and implies a dynamic, ever-changing, active or passive process). Leininger’s (2002a) central purpose in her theory of transcultural nursing care is “to discover and explain diverse and universal culturally based care factors influencing the health, well-being, illness, or death of individuals or groups” (p. 190). She uses her classic “Sunrise Model” to identify the multifaceted theory and provides five enablers beneficial to “teasing out vague ideas,” two of which are The Observation, Participation, and Reflection Enabler and the Researcher’s Domain of Inquiry. Nurses can use Leininger’s model to provide culturally congruent, safe, and meaningful care to patients or clients of diverse or similar cultures. See the following Theory Box. National and Global Directives The American Nurses Association (ANA) has a long and vital history related to ethics, human rights, and numerous efforts to eliminate discriminatory practices against nurses as well as patients. The ANA Code of Ethics for Nurses with Interpretive Statements, Provision 8, states, “The nurse collaborates with other health professionals and the public in promoting community, national, and international efforts to meet health needs” (2008, p. 23). This provision helps the nurse recognize that health care must be provided to culturally diverse populations in the United States and on all continents of the world. Although a nurse may be inclined to impose his or her own cultural values on others, whether patients or staff, avoiding this imposition affirms the respect and sensitivity for the values and healthcare practices associated with different cultures. This provision is reinforced by the ANA position statement (2010), The Nurse’s Role in Ethics and Human Rights: Protecting and Promoting Individual Worth, Dignity, and Human Rights in Practice Settings. The value of human rights is placed in the forefront for nurses whose specific actions are to promote and protect the human rights of every individual in all practice care environments. Similar statements are made with an international emphasis and a specialty emphasis. The ICN Code of Ethics for Nurses (2012) states: The nurse ensures that the individual receives accurate, sufficient and timely information in a culturally appropriate manner on which to base consent to care and related treatment. The nurse shares with society the responsibility for initiating and supporting action to meet the health and social needs of the public, in particular those of vulnerable populations. The nurse demonstrates professional values such as respectfulness, responsiveness, compassion, trustworthiness and integrity. (p. 3) Nurse educators, as a specialty example, are expected to recognize “multicultural, gender, and experiential influences on teaching and learning”; “identify individual learning styles and unique learning needs of international, adult, multicultural, educationally disadvantaged, physically challenged, at-risk, and second degree learners”; and ensure “that the curriculum reflects institutional philosophy and mission, current nursing and health care trends, and community and societal needs so as to prepare graduates for practice in a complex, dynamic, multicultural health care environment.” (National League for Nursing, 2005, pp. 1, 2, 4) These examples illustrate a global concern for cultural sensitivity. Although the emphasis has been on recipients of care, the same attentiveness is needed in the workforce. Patients are aware of how they are treated; and they also see how staff interact with each other. Special Issues Health disparities between majority and ethnic minority populations are not new issues and continue to be problematic because they exist for multiple and complex reasons. Causes of disparities in health care include poor education, health behaviors of the minority group, inadequate financial resources, and environmental factors. Disparities in health care that relate to quality of care include provider/patient relationships, actual access to care, treatment regimens that necessarily reflect current evidence, provider bias and discrimination, mistrust of the healthcare system, and refusal of treatment (Baldwin, 2003). Health disparities in ethnic and racial groups are observed in cardiovascular disease, which has a 40% higher incidence in U.S. blacks than in U.S. whites; cancer, which has a 30% higher death rate for all cancers in U.S. blacks than in U.S. whites; and diabetes in Hispanics, who are twice as likely to die from this disease than non-Hispanic whites. Native Americans have a life expectancy that is less than the national average, whereas Asians and Pacific Islanders are considered among the healthiest population groups. However, within the Asian and Pacific Islander population, health outcomes are more diverse. Solutions to health and healthcare disparities among ethnic and racial populations must be accomplished through research to improve care. Consider how these disparities in disease and in healthcare services might affect the healthcare providers in the workplace in relationship to their ethnic or racial group. It is necessary to increase healthcare providers’ knowledge of such disparities so that they can more effectively manage and treat diseases related to ethnic and racial minorities, which increasingly might include themselves. The healthcare system in the United States has consistently focused on individuals and their health problems, but it has failed to recognize the cultural differences, beliefs, symbolisms, and interpretations of illness of some people as a group. As health care moves toward provision of care for populations, culture can have an even greater influence on approaches to care. Commonly, patients for whom healthcare practitioners provide care are newcomers to health care in the United States. Similarly, new staff are commonly neither acculturated nor assimilated into the cultural values of the dominant culture. Currently, accessibility to health care in the United States is linked to specific social strata. This challenges nurse leaders, managers, and followers who strive for worth, recognition, and individuality for patients and staff regardless of their ascribed economic and social standing. Beginning nurse leaders, managers, and followers may sense that the knowledge they bring to their job lacks “real-life” experiences that provide the springboard to address staff and patient needs. In reality, although lack of experience may be slightly hampering, it is by no means an obstacle to addressing individualized attention to staff and patients. The key is that if the nurse manager and staff respect people and their needs, economic and social standings become moot points. This challenge will intensify as the implications of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 unfold. If nothing else happens, the diversity of insured patients will increase. Language Translating a message in one language to another language to ensure equivalence includes maintaining the same meaning of the word or concept. Equivalency is accomplished through interpretation, which extends beyond “word-for-word” translation to explain the meaning of concepts. When providing care to a language diverse patient, the nurse must realize that the process of translation of illness/disease conditions and treatment is complex and requires certain tasks. Two important tasks are “(a) transferring data from the source language to the target language and (b) maintaining or establishing cross-cultural semantic equivalence” (International Council of Nurses, 2008, p. 5). The current practice seems to be one of using interpreters rather than translators when speaking with non–English-speaking patients and clients. Why? Purnell and Paulanka (2008) advocate that trained healthcare providers as interpreters can decode words and provide the right meaning of the message. However, the authors also suggest being aware that interpreters might affect the reporting of symptoms, using their own ideas or omitting information. It is important to allow time for translation and interpretation and to clarify information as needed. Promotion of culturally competent care with a translator has legal implications in the United States. The legal foundation for language access lies in Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which states: No person in the United States, on the ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefit of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance (Chen, Youdelman, Brooks, 2007, p. 362). The federal government has interpreted and treated language as a proxy for national origin, and language assistance should be pursued. These activities supported by the Civil Rights Act include access to health care. Additionally, once a healthcare provider accepts any federal funds (e.g., Medicaid payments), the provider is responsible for providing language access to all the provider’s patients. Meaning of Diversity in the Organization Leading and managing cultural diversity in an organization means managing personal thinking and helping others to think in new ways. According to Noone (2008), nursing leaders need a workforce that can provide culturally competent care. In addition, nursing’s goal is to create a workforce that reflects the population it serves. This diversity can occur across roles, including advanced practice registered nurses, managers, and chief nurse executives. Managing issues that involve culture—whether institutional, ethnic, gender, religious, or any other kind—requires patience, persistence, and much understanding. One way to promote this understanding is through shared stories that have symbolic power. Staff who know what is valuable to patients and to themselves can act accordingly and derive satisfaction from work. Having a clear mission, goals, rewards, and acknowledgment of efforts leads to greater productivity from a culturally diverse staff who aspire to unity and uniqueness. (The following Research Perspective illustrates this point in providing end-of-life care.) When assessing staff diversity, the nurse leader or manager can ask these two questions: •What is the cultural representation of the workforce? •What kind of team-building activities are needed to create a cohesive workforce for effective healthcare delivery? Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk Cultural Relevance in the Workplace Although the literature has addressed multicultural needs of patients, it is sparse in identifying effective methods for nurse managers to use when dealing with multicultural staff. Differences in education and culture can impede patient care, and uncomfortable situations may emerge from such differences. For example, staff members may be reluctant to admit language problems that hamper their written communication. They may also be reluctant to admit their lack of understanding when interpreting directions. Psychosocial skills may be problematic as well, because non-Westernized countries encourage emotional restraint. Staff may have difficulty addressing issues that relate to private family matters. Non-Asian nurses may have difficulty accepting the intensified family involvement of Asian cultures. The lack of assertiveness and the subservient physician-nurse relationships of some cultures are other issues that provide challenges for nurse managers. Unit-oriented workshops arranged by the nurse manager to address effective assertive techniques and family involvement as it relates to cultural differences are two ways of assisting staff with cultural work situations. Respecting cultural diversity in the team fosters cooperation and supports sound decision making. Nurse leaders and managers who ascribe to a positive view of culture and its characteristics effectively acknowledge cultural diversity among patients and staff. This includes providing culturally sensitive care to patients while simultaneously balancing a culturally diverse staff. For example, cultural diversity might mean being sensitive to or being able to embrace the emotions of a large multicultural group comprising staff and patients. Unless we understand the differences, we cannot come together and make decisions that are in the best interest of the patient. Transculturalism sometimes has been considered in a narrow sense as a comparison of health beliefs and practices of people from different countries or geographic regions. However, culture can be construed more broadly to include differences in health beliefs and practices by gender, race, ethnicity, economic status, sexual preference, age, and disability or physical challenge. Thus, when concepts of transcultural care are discussed, we should consider differences in health beliefs and practices not only between and among countries but also between genders and among, for example, races, ethnic groups, and different economic strata. This requires us to consider multiple factors about all individuals. The range of attitudes toward culturally diverse groups can be viewed along a continuum of intensity (Lenburg et al., 1995, p. 4) from hate to contempt to tolerance to respect and ending with celebration/affirmation. Managers need to be aware of this continuum so that they can apply strategies appropriately to the workforce—for example, contempt versus affirmation. These responses are equally reflected in employee groups. Variables that may influence the nurse’s response may include how the illness is perceived by the culture and the cultural competency of the healthcare provider. If the nurse’s culture is different from the patient’s, whose cultural perspective dominates? It might not be possible to adapt care totally to the patient’s perspective. However, knowing that a difference exists allows for a mutual conversation related to the rationale for care. Similarly if a workplace dispute occurs, trying to see “the other view” can create new insights into a situation. To make cultural competence relevant to clinical practice, Engebretson, Mahoney, and Carlson (2008) linked a cultural competency continuum, in which they identified the levels of competence, to values in health care. They cited the levels as cultural destructiveness, cultural incapacity, cultural blindness, cultural pre-competence and proficiency that would be complementary to patient care. The “clinically relevant continuum” included behaviors of maleficence, incompetence, standardization, and outcomes focused (positive health outcomes). A model was developed that integrated the cultural competence continuum with the clinically relevant continuum and the components of evidence-based care; namely, best research practice, clinical expertise, and patient’s values and circumstances. Discussion: Managing Quality and Risk Their goal was to suggest how to make cultural concerns relevant to clinical practitioners at the level of the patient-provider encounter. To understand, value, and use diversity, nurse managers need to approach every staff person as an individual. This same strategy works for all of us. Although staff of different cultural groups may be diverse in appearance, values, beliefs, communication patterns, and mannerisms, they have many things in common. Staff members want to be accepted by others and to succeed in their jobs. With fairness and respect, nurse managers should openly support the competencies and contributions of staff members from all cultural groups with a goal of achieving quality patient care. Nurse managers hold the key to allowing the full potential of each person on the staff. Body movements, eye contacts, gestures, verbal tone, and physical closeness when communicating are all part of a person’s culture. For the nurse manager, understanding these cultural behaviors is critical in accomplishing effective communication within the diverse workforce population. As if language differences aren’t challenging enough, add on the slang, idioms, and fads inherent to U.S. culture. It is no surprise that culturally sensitive communications is difficult to achieve. Nurses need to ensure that ineffective communication among staff, with patients, and with others does not lead to misunderstandings and eventual alienation. Failure to address cultural diversity leads to negative effects on performance and staff interactions. Nurse managers can find many ways to address this issue. For example, in relation to performance, a nurse manager can make sure messages about patient care are received. This might be accomplished by sitting down with a nurse and analyzing a situation to ensure that understanding has occurred. In addition, the nurse manager might use a communication notebook that allows the nurse to slowly “digest” information by writing down communication areas that may be unclear. For effective staff interaction, the nurse manager also can make a special effort to pair mentors and mentees who have different ethnic backgrounds and encourage staff to learn another language, one prominent among the population served. Even a “word a day” approach could alter a team’s ability to interact with patients. Individual and Societal Factors Nurse managers must work with staff to foster respect of different lifestyles. To do this, nurse managers need to accept three key principles: multiculturalism, which refers to maintaining several different cultures; cross-culturalism, which means mediating between/among cultures; and transculturalism, which denotes bridging significant differences in cultural practices. Each of those principles operates in t

Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing ORDER NOW FOR CUSTOMIZED AND ORIGINAL ESSAY PAPERS ON Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing 1. Hypothesis testing: how to form hypotheses (null and alternative); what is the meaning of reject the null or fail to reject the null; how to compare the p-value to the significant level (suchlike alpha = 0.05), and what a smaller p-value means. Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing 2. How to interpret the one-sample t-test results: what are Ho and Ha; the standard for determining statistical significance, i.e., t statistic and p-value; what are the steps for the one-sample t test; what a normal distribution looks like. 3. How to interpret the one-way ANOVA results: what are Ho and Ha; the standard for determining statistical significance, i.e., F statistic and p-value; what an F distribution looks like. 4. How to interpret the simple linear regression results: what are Ho and Ha; the standard for determining statistical significance, i.e., t statistic and p-value of the slope; what is the slope and what it means; what is the R-square (not R, it is R-square!) and what it means; what are independent variables and dependent variable, and what their relationships are; how would you plot the relationship between a dependent variable and an independent variable; from a given independent variable, how would you predict the value of a dependent variable. 5. How to interpret the multiple regression results: how to interpret the slope of an independent variable (i.e., the impact of this independent variable, holding other independent variables constance). Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing _midterm_review.docx Form: 20 questions in total. 10 multiple choice or filling the blanks; 10 short responses, related to the statistical tables provided (suchlike those tables in HW assignments). Key points are summarized below: Level of measurement: understand what are continuous and discrete variables, and examples of different types (discrete, continuous, and the 4 types below) Hypothesis testing: how to form hypotheses (null and alternative); what is the meaning of reject the null or fail to reject the null; how to compare the p-value to the significant level (suchlike alpha = 0.05), and what a smaller p-value means. How to interpret the one-sample t-test results: what are Ho and Ha; the standard for determining statistical significance, i.e., t statistic and p-value; what are the steps for the one-sample t test; what a normal distribution looks like. How to interpret the one-way ANOVA results: what are Ho and Ha; the standard for determining statistical significance, i.e., F statistic and p-value; what an F distribution looks like. How to interpret the simple linear regression results: what are Ho and Ha; the standard for determining statistical significance, i.e., t statistic and p-value of the slope; what is the slope and what it means; what is the R-square (not R, it is R-square!) and what it means; what are independent variables and dependent variable, and what their relationships are; how would you plot the relationship between a dependent variable and an independent variable; from a given independent variable, how would you predict the value of a dependent variable. How to interpret the multiple regression results: how to interpret the slope of an in dependent variable (i.e., the impact of this independent variable, holding other independent variables constance). Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing Understand how to use SPSS or Stata to produce all of the tables that you have had to handle so far. Homework 1: Tables used: Homework 2: Tables used: Homework 3: Tables used: Be familiar with the variables housed in the GSS dataset. Limited because it doesn’t have a lot of the best kind of variables, but the variables still work. Limitations: level of measurement / going to be a lot of times you have to overlook the problems HAPMAR (happiness in marriage), RINCOME (income), PAPRES10 (father’s prestige score) `How are they coded? HAPMAR ? 1 = very happy, 2 = pretty happy, 3 = not too happy, 8 = don’t know, 9 = no answer, 0 = Not applicable RINCOME ? 1 = Lt $1000, 2 = $1000 – $2999, […], 12 = $25000 or more, 13 = Refused, 98 = Don’t know, 99 = No answer, 0 = applicable PAPRES ? F“or the 3 different ‘papres’ variables on GSS, there are no labels associated with the codes Levels of measurement? HAPMAR – nominal RINCOME – ordinal PAPRES – interval Be able to distinguish among various levels of measurement for variables. Nominal Data cannot be ordered nor can it be used in calculations Republican, democrat, green, libertarian Not useful in calculations – Data is qualitative, can’t be used in a meaningful way such as means and standard deviations. Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing Ordinal Data that can be ordered, differences cannot be measured Small – 8oz, medium – 12oz, large – 32oz Cities ranked 1-10, but differences between the cities don’t make sense/ can’t know how much better life is in city 1 vs city 2 Also shouldn’t be used in calculations Interval Data with a definite ordering but not starting point; the differences can be measured, but there is no such thing as a ratio Not only classifies and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the distances between each interval on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low interval to high interval Can be ordered and differences between the data make sense Data at this level does not have a starting point 0 degrees doesn’t mean absence of temperature think temperature: 10?+10?=20? but 20? is not twice as hot as 10?. We can see this when we convert to Farenheit; 10?= 50?, but 20?= 68?. Ratio Data Data with a starting point that can be ordered; the differences have meaning and ratios can be calculated All features of interval data plus absolute zero Phrases such as “four times as likely” are actually meaningful Is defined as a quantitative data, having the same properties as interval data, with an equal and definitive ratio between each data and absolute “zero” being treated as a point of origin Tell us about the order, the exact value in between units Height, weight, duration Both descriptive and inferential statistics can be applied Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing Your highest level, your most sophisticated Axis of whatever you are measuring There can be no negative numeric value in ratio data Amount of money in your pocket right now Understand the difference between continuous and discrete variables. Discrete data Very discrete spaces in between values / not going to have values in between whole numbers Certain number of values; positive, whole numbers (like number of people) Continuous data Fractional size spaces in between Capturing every moment of the process / any value between a given range Height, weight, etc. Not restricted to separate values Occupies any value over a continuous data value Age Why is it important to know #4 and #5 in performing statistical procedures. Not all variable types can have statistical procedures performed on them Affects what type of analytical techniques can be used on the data and what conclusions can be drawn Important to understand that they are just 2 different types of data which will explain the relationship of the data & create a better understanding for analysis Important because you always want to know the level of measurement before you start analysis – you want to choose the right way of doing analysis What do we mean by inference? Inference: causal Something caused/influenced another thing A caused by B Concerned primarily with understanding the quality of parameter estimates How sure are we that estimated xbar is near true population mean µ Reliability of statistical relationships, typically on the basis of random sampling Would you need to perform any work regarding inference with population data? No, inferential statistics allows you to make inferences about the population based on sample data. No inferences would need to be made if you had population data. What is the purpose of hypothesis testing, and on what kind of data? Hypothesis testing is the primary mechanism for making decisions based on observed sample statistics We want to know if there’s any relationship – causal or correlated Related to the conclusion we can get/ pre-score and post-score see if there’s a difference Must be done with continuous sample data The alpha level tells you that you’re operating at the possibility of being wrong Working cautiously and understanding limitations What are the important components of hypothesis testing? What are the essential elements? Read all the elements to understand what it’s about. Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing Know sampling statistic – derive from own data Critical value – get off curve Compare critical value to the point you derive from your data Based on the level of significance, you draw a conclusion There’s a lot of components – you have to have a dataset, have to construct your own hypothesis, find mean & variance to construct analysis Null & alternative hypotheses Test statistic Sampling statistic Critical value Probability values and statistical significance Conclusions of hypothesis testing What are the steps in performing a hypothesis test? Specify the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis assumptions / givens Random sampling, known parameters, levels of measurement, known statistics Set the significance level (alpha value) Calculate the test statistic and corresponding p-value Drawing a conclusion Be able to draw a “curve” and label that curve appropriately for a hypothesis test. Plot number line below curve and be able to do the math Make sure math matches curve If it’s a two tailed test make sure you break it up into two sides F is always one tail Question about greater than or equal to – it’s a one-sided test What alternative is there to a “curve”? You can walk through the equation without drawing a curve Ex: calculate p-value and compare that to the critical value You perform the test and afterwards and tell people how to determine if that’s significant or not How do tests of proportion differ from tests of means? A test of proportions seeks to find a statistically significant difference between the proportions of two groups. A test of means seeks to find a statistically significant difference between the means of two groups. What is a sampling distribution and how is it derived? A sampling distribution is a probability distribution of a statistic obtained through a large number of samples drawn from a specific population It tells us which outcomes we should expect for some sample statistics (mean, standard deviation, correlation, etc Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing Represents the distribution of the point estimates based on samples of a fixed size from a certain population. It is useful to think of a particular point estimate as being drawn from such distribution. Understanding the concept of a sampling distribution is central to understanding statistical inference. Example below: unimodal and approximately symmetric. Centered exactly at true population mean µ=3.90. Sample means should tend to fall around population mean. What are sampling distributions used for? Knowledge of sampling distribution & making inferences about the overall population What is a significance level? How is it interpreted? (significance level = a) Probability of error / doing our best to get as close as we can. Restricting to 5%, 1%, etc. The significance level, also denoted as alpha or a is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. For example, a significance level of .05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a difference exists when there is no actual difference (95% confidence interval to evaluate hypothesis test). With this example, we will make an error whenever the point estimate is at least 1.96 standard errors away from population parameter (about 5% of the time, 2.5% on each tail) Can you set your level of significance anywhere? Yes you can – you’re essentially making an assumption at the beginning of your statistical experiment so you can adjust it to whatever you want Lower the alpha(significance level), more confident Coming in with an alpha of .01 – one would most likely assume that findings would be somewhat significant What do we mean by a “significant” finding? Differences that are being studied are real and not due to chance What are the basic things you need to perform a hypothesis test? Parameter & Statistic parameter: summary description of a fixed characteristic or measure of the target population. Denotes the true value that would be obtained if a census rather than a sample were undertaken Mean (µ), Variance ( o ˆ2), standard deviation ( o ), proportion (p) Statistic: summary description of a characteristic or measure of the sample. The sample statistic is used as an estimate of the population parameter Sample mean (xbar), sample variance (S^2), sample standard deviation (S), sample proportion (pbar) Sampling Distribution: probability distribution of a statistic obtained through a large number of samples drawn from a specific population Standard Error: similar to standard deviation – both are measures of spread. The higher the number, the more spread out your data is. Standard error uses statistics (sample data) and standard deviation uses parameters (population data) Tells you how far your sample statistic (such as sample mean) deviates from the actual population mean. Larger your sample size, the smaller the SE/closer your sample mean is to the actual population mean. Null hypothesis: a statement in which no difference or effect is expected Alternate hypothesis: a statement that some difference or effect is expected.Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing Descriptive statistics Brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set, which can be either a representation of the entire or a sample of a population/ summarizes or describes characteristics of a data set Broken down into measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (spread – standard deviation, variance, minimum and maximum variables, skewness) What do you run on the computer at the very start of a hypothesis test? (Varies with type of test) Run a frequency distribution to make sure your levels of measurement match the procedures you want to do What is a test statistic and how many test statistics have we worked with so far? Test statistic measures how close the sample has come to the null hypothesis. Its observed value changes randomly from one random sample to a different sample. A test statistic contains information about the data that is relevant for deciding whether to reject the null hypothesis or not Hypothesis test Test Statistic Z-Test Z-Statistic t-test t-statistic ANOVA F-statistic Chi-square tests Chi-square statistic What is a frequency distribution and a cross tabulation and how do you interpret them? Frequency distribution: shows you how common values are within the variable We can get an idea about whether something is a continuous or categorical variable/ snapshot view of the characteristics of a data set – allows you to see how scores are distributed across the whole set of scores (spread evenly, skew, etc.) SPSS steps: click on analyze —> descriptive statistics —> frequencies Move the variable of interest into the right-hand column Click on the chart button, select histograms, and press continue and OK to generate distribution table Cross tabulations: shows where the variables have something in common, seen at the intersec tion of the row and the column summarize the association between two categorical variables joint frequency distribution of cases based on two or more categorical variables SPSS steps: analyze —> descriptive statistics —> select cross tabulation Here you will see Rows and Columns. You can select one or more than one variable in each of these boxes, depending on what you have to compare, then click on OK. For percentages – analyze —> descriptive statistics —> crosstabs —> cells —> under percentage, select all 3 options Can you determine the level of measurement from a frequency distribution? Yes, the independent variable of a frequency distribution should indicate its level of measurement – which is typically categorical What is the purpose of an analysis of variance? Is it relevant for data that comes in proportions? Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing ANOVA uses a single hypothesis test to check whether the means across many groups are equal: H0: The mean outcome is the same across all groups. In statistical notation, µ1 = µ2 =…… = µk where µi represents the mean of the outcome for observations in category i. HA: At least one mean is different. Generally we must check three conditions on the data before performing ANOVA: the observations are independent within and across groups, the data within each group are nearly normal, and the variability across the groups is about equal How do you calculate Eta 2 from ANOVA and how do you interpret it? (from the reading) A measure in ANOVA that tells you how much variance is in between each variable Is a measure in ANOVA (h^2) – proportion of the total variance that is attributed to an effect. It is calculated as the ratio of the effect variance (SSeffect) to the total variance (SStotal) We will be given value and just need to interpret it on test Example: Total SS: 62.29, Anxiety SS: 4.08 —> 4.08/62.29 = 6.6% 6% of variance is associated with anxiety What kind of data is needed for an analysis of variance? Dependent variable must be a continuous (interval or ratio) level of measurement Independent variable must be a categorical (nominal or ordinal variable) Two way ANOVA has 2 independent variables Females may have higher IQ scores compared to males, but this difference could be greater or less in European countries compared to North American countries ANOVA assumes: data is normally distributed, homogeneity of variance (variance among groups should be approx. equal), observations independent of each other How does ANOVA work with both means and variances? Inferences about means are made by analyzing variance What is the equation for ANOVA? F = MST/MSE where F = Anova coefficient, MST = mean sum of squares due to treatment, MSE = mean sum of squares due to error MST = SST/p-1 SST = ?n(x-xbar)^2 where SST = sum of squares due to treatment, p = total number of populations, n = total number of samples in a population MSE = SSE/N-p SSE = ?(n-1)S^2 Where SSE = sum of squares due to error, S = standard deviation of samples, and N = total number of observations F=MSbetween/MSwithin What kind of conclusion are we looking to draw from an ANOVA procedure? What is ALL that we can report? We are looking to see if the means between groups are statistically equal to one another, which is all we can report. P-value and Eta^2 What are we able to conclude from linear regression that we have not been able to conclude with other procedures? Based on what? The growth of dependent variable due to changing (can be positive or negative) of 1 unit of independent variable. Which group is significantly different from the others (coding each group as one binary independent variable). What level of variable measurement is ideal for regression? Why? Continuous variable Any time you’re working with means, you want to be working with ratios because you want to be able to have continuous data with an absolute zero Why are certain levels of measurement problematic? TA doesn’t think they are problematic, but – for some variables getting the mean doesn’t make sense If not continuous, maybe it’s not normally distributed.Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing OTHER NOTES / READING NOTES Descriptive statistics: uses the data to provide descriptions of the population, either through numerical calculations or graphs or tables Inferential statistics: makes inferences and predictions about a population based on a sample of data taken from the population in question ANOVA Analysis of variance using a test statistic F/ uses single hypothesis test to check whether the means across many groups are equal Null: mean outcome is the same across all groups; Alternate: at least one mean is different Interval or ratio level data 3 conditions before performing ANOVA: the observations are independent within and across groups The data within each group are nearly normal The variability across the groups is about equal Example: consider a stats department that runs three lectures of an introductory stats course. We might like to determine whether there are statistically significant differences in first exam scores in these three classes (A,B, and C). Describe appropriate hypotheses to determine whether there are any differences between the 3 classes. H0= Average score is identical in all lectures, any observed difference is due to chance. HA: average score varies by class Mean square between groups( MSG) : Simultaneously consider many groups, and evaluate whether their sample means differ more than we would expect from natural variation Mean square between groups is quite useless so we compute a pooled variance estimate mean square error (MSE). MSE has an associated degrees of freedom value dfE= n – k It is helpful to think of MSE as a measure of variability within the groups. When the null hypothesis is true, any differences among the sample means are only due to chance and the MSG and MSE should be about equal. As a test statistic for ANOVA, we examine the fraction of MSG and MSE F = MSG/MSE The MSG represents a measure of the between-group variability, and MSE measures the variability within each of the groups ANOVA on SPSS One-way: Analyze > Compare means > One way ANOVA Dependent list: variable whose means will be compared between the samples Factor: the independent variable: categories will define which samples will be compared F test When to use F-test: F: represents a standardized ratio of variability in the sample means relative to the variability within groups. If null is true, F follows an F distribution. The upper tail of the F distribution is used to represent the p-value We can use the F statistic to evaluate the hypotheses in what is called an F test. A p-value can be computed from the F statistic using an F distribution, which has two associated parameters df1 and df2 The larger the observed variability in the sample means (MSG) relative to the within-group observations (MSE), the larger F will be and the strongest evidence against the null hypothesis. Because larger values of F represent stronger evidence against the null hypothesis, we use the upper tail of the distribution to compute a p-value.Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing P-value is how significant your findings are Used to determine statistical significance in a hypothesis test; evaluate how well the sample data support the devil’s advocate argument that the null hypothesis is true. Measures how compatible your data are with the null hypothesis. The result you find from your z or t score after doing test Lower the better – more likely that you can reject your null For F—> tail is where significant values are Alpha is what you set beforehand to see if p-value is going to be below it a= 1 – confidence interval µ= population mean, xbar = sample mean Variance Trying to see how close together a data set is T test (steps and components) When to do T-Test: On SPSS: Analyze > Compare means > Independent Samples T Test Test variables: the dependent variable(s)/ continuous variable whose means will be compared between the two groups Grouping variable: independent variable/categories of the independent variable will define which samples will be compared in the t test Steps using calculator/walk through procedure: Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing Z tests (steps and components) When to do Z-test Population is always a z test The formula for calculating a z -score is z =(x-?)/?, where ? is the population mean and ? is the population standard deviation (note: if you don’t know the population standard deviation or the sample size is below 6, you should use a t-score instead of a z -score). Giving frequency table and understanding how its coded What does the table/number represent What kind of data is that Happiness of marriage: categorical One-tailed test (steps and components) A statistical hypothesis test in which the critical area of a distribution is one-sided so that it is either greater than or less than a certain value, but not both. If sample being tested falls into the one sided critical area, the alternative hypothesis will be accepted instead of the null Two-tailed test (steps and components) Method in which the critical area of a distribution is two-sided and tests whether a sample is greater than or less than a certain range of values. If sample being tested falls into either of the critical areas, the alternative hypothesis is accepted instead of the null. Review Session/OH notes Know how to read the curve and table for a Z, T, and F test Probability, different parameters, different testing, etc. Don’t need to know all equations – but do need to know really straightforward equations e. F test = means squared/ another means squared Sum of squared/sum of squared Know what all of these mean Know how sampling distributions work Know something about z, t, f scores/ what they mean Z-tests are statistical calculations that can be used to compare population means to a samples A z-score is a measure of position that indicates the number of standard deviations a data value lies from the mean. Positive if above mean, negative if below. T-tests are calculations used to test a hypothesis, most useful when we need to determine if there is a statistically significant difference between two independent sample groups Comparing two related samples Population is infinite and normal, population variance is unknown and estimated from sample, mean is known, sample observations are random and independent, sample size is small, null may be one sided or two sided F-test is used to test the equality of two populations/ if data conforms to a regression model which is acquired through least square analysis/ determines whether any of the independent variables is having a linear relationship with the dependent variable A statistical test which determines the equality of the variances of the two normal datasets How much proportion of the variation is being contributed by this effect —> n^2=SSeffect/SStotal Might encounter a situation where we have so many groups, might not be a huge impact because of so many groups Hypothesis test with slope y=B0+B1X1 Testing if slope is significant (B1) Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing Null hypothesis: B1=0 Sociology 113 Cumulative Final Exam Study Guide All the knowledge you need included below. Understand how to use SPSS or Stata to produce all of the tables that you have had to handle so far. Frequency Distribution, Cross tabulation, ANOVA Output, Two-Sample T-Test Frequency Distribution Analyze ? Descriptive Statistics ? Frequency Distribution Used in order to summarize categorical variables Cross Tabulation Analyze ? Descriptive Statistics ? Cross Tabulation Used in order to expose relationships between two separate variables ANOVA Output Analyze ? Compare Means ? One-Way ANOVA output Independent variable goes under ‘factor’ Dependent variable goes under ‘dependent list’ Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing Post Hoc test at significance level 0.05 If P is = or < 0.05, then reject the null. If above, then fail to reject. Two-Sample T-Test Analyze ? Compare Means ? Independent Samples T-Test Input Test variable and grouping variable If sig (2-tailed) is below 0.05, reject the null hypothesis Be familiar with the variables housed in the GSS dataset. Be familiar particularly with the variables used in the homework happiness in marriage (HAPMAR), respondent’s income (RINCOME), father’s prestige score (PAPRES10) How are they coded? [a] Levels of measurement? HAPMAR – nominal [b] [c] [d] RINCOME – ordinal PAPRES – interval Be able to distinguish among various levels of measurement for variables. Nominal – name only; labels with no numerical significance cannot perform statistical procedures Ordinal – ordered levels or ranks; differences between each is unknown cannot perform statistical procedures Interval – numeric scales in which we know both the order and the exact differences between the values, like temperature can perform some statistical analysis, but the problem is that they don’t have a “true zero” (0 does not mean the absence of value; it is actually another number used on the scale, like 0? or 0?, there is no absence of temperature) which means we cannot calculate ratios think temperature: 10?+10?=20? but 20? is not twice as hot as 10?. We can see this when we convert to Farenheit; 10?= 50?, but 20?= 68?. Ratio – tell us about the order, the exact value between units, and they also have an absolute zero, like height, weight, durationDiscussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing both descriptive and inferential statistics can be applied Understand the difference between continuous and discrete variables. [e] discrete variables refer to those that have a certain number of values; positive, whole numbers (like number of people) Whole values continuous variables refer to t hose that can take any value between a given range (like height, weight, etc) Any values like fractions of values Why is it important to know #4 and #5 in performing statistical procedures. it is important to know the level of measurement because not all variable types can have statistical procedures performed on them (see #3) You can do means test on ratio data, but not on nominal data What do we mean by inference? statistical inference is the theory, methods, and practice of forming judgments about the parameters of a population and the reliability of statistical relationships, typically on the basis of random sampling causal inference is finding the causal relationship between variables Would you need to perform any work regarding inference with population data? no, inferential statistics allows you to make inferences about the population based on sample data. no inferences would need to be made if you have the population data What is the purpose of hypothesis testing, and on what kind of data? hypothesis testing is the primary mechanism for making decisions based on statistical analysis in order to make inferences about population parameters based on observed sample statistics is there a causal relationship? must be done on continuous sample data What are the important components of hypothesis testing? What are the essential elements? the null and alternative hypotheses test statistic Discussion: Sociology Hypothesis Testing sampling statistic critical value (aka significance aka alpha value) probability values and statistical significance conclusions of hypothesis testing get data set 2. find variable 3. construct hypothesis 4. construct analysis. What are the steps in performing a hypothesis test? hypothesis: null and alternative assumptions/givens: random sampling, normal population distribution, level of measurement, known parameters/known statistics sampling distribution test statistic: use appropriate sampling distribution to calculate value for test statistic level of significance, the critical va

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